2011年8月11日 星期四

The origin of Taiwanese

In the past few years, media reports on the origin of the Taiwanese have appeared with headlines such as "85% of Taiwanese are the descendants of the Aborigines", "Taiwanese are not Chinese", etc. Reporters in Taiwan tend to sensationalize issues using mis-interpreted information, so these are not quite that surprising. To avoid confusion, the abstract in English and a summary in Chinese of the original paper published in 2001, written by Dr Lin Ma-li herself, are both quoted below, so readers can get the first-hand info and form their own opinion [note: red highlights are added for clarity].

A quick summation first. Lin's paper essentially states that

(1) based on one tissue antigen marker, both the Hoklo and the Hakka appear to descend from the Yue Tribe (the Southern Savages);
(2) based on the white cell antigen study, 13% of "Taiwanese" share one marker with the Aborigines, not as high as imagined, and impossible to verify since past Pinpuhuan tribes are now hard to find;
(3) the Northern Han were the pure Han; the ancestors of Taiwanese were not, they had self-assimilated into the Han to gain survival advantages; and
(4) the Southern Han with 3 subgroups were different from the Northerners; how close the modern Taiwanese are to the Southern-Han remains to be investigated.

There was never any mention of "Taiwanese were not Chinese" anywhere.


The original abstract is here:

"The Minnan and Hakka people groups, the so-called “Taiwanese”, are the descendants of early settlers from the southeast coast of China during the last few centuries. Genetically they showed affinities to southern Asian populations, as determined by phylogenetic trees and correspondence analysis calculated from HLA allele frequencies. This corresponds historically with the fact that they are the descendants of the southeast coastal indigenous population (Yueh) of China and should therefore not be considered as descendants of “pure” northern Han Chinese. A33-B58-DRB1*03 (A33-Cw10-B58-DRB1*03-DQB1*02), the most common HLA haplotype among “Taiwanese”, with a haplotype frequency of 6.3%, has also been found to be the most common haplotype among Thai-Chinese and Singapore Chinese, two other populations also originating from the southeast coast of China. These observations suggests that this haplotype is the most well-conserved ancient haplotype of the Yueh."

And the article in Chinese:

從組織抗原推論閩南人及客家人所謂"台灣人"的來源

林媽利

摘 要

台灣的閩南人及客家人也就是所謂的「台灣人」(以下均以括弧的「台灣人」代表閩南人及客家人),最近幾世紀以來自中國大陸東南沿海地區移民的後代,在基因上經族群系統發生樹(phylogenetic tree)及族群相關分析(correspondence analysis)研究計算後,發現閩南人及客家人是屬於南亞洲人種,這剛好配合民族史的記載,認為「台灣人」是大陸東南沿海原住民「越族」的後代。A33-B58-DRE1*03(即A33-Cw10-B58-DRB1"03-DQB1*02)是台灣人最常見的組織抗原(HIO"-A)半套體,頻率為六‧三%,而這半套體在新加坡華人及泰國華人也算是最常見,顯示這是被完整保留下來的古代越族的基因。

前 言

「台灣人」是台灣島上最大的族群,祖先是近四○○年從大陸東南沿海地區移民過來的。先民到達台灣後,不少和原住民通婚,主要是和平地的平埔族,也有和高山原住民。在我們以前的研究發現「台灣人」十三%的基因(HLA-A,B, C半套體)是來自原住民,在那個研究我們是做了九族高山原住民即在消失中的「巴宰」平埔族的研究,這雖然顯示「台灣人」的基因中並沒有像想像中的有許多原住民的基因,但因為昔日的九族平埔族現在已不易找到,無從研究及比較,所以到底有多少現在「台灣人」的基因是來自這些已經消失的平埔族是不得而知的。但是另一方面「台灣人」經口述或從族譜代代相傳,自認「台灣人」的祖先是來自中國北方的中原,在漢朝及以後的幾百年當中為了逃避北方匈奴的侵略而南遷到中國大陸東南沿海地區,所以「台灣人」應該算是北方中原和人的純種後代,所以屬於偉大的漢人傳統「華夏」。在這研究中我們分析閩南人及客家人的HLA(為組織抗原的簡稱資料,建構族群系統發生樹、畫製族群的相關分析圖、追蹤及比對在閩南人客家人最常見的HLA半套體在別族群出現的情形,借此希望澄清有關「台灣人」的來源。

討 論

就單單從許多HLA研究的結果,長久以來即已經知道北方漢人及南方漢人在基因上不同,這和發現的中國史前資料及有文字記載以後的歷史相配合,「中原文化」是在中國北方黃河的黃土高原發展出來的,從最近挖掘出來的栗米(millets)可以追溯到公元前六到七千年之久。中原文化在夏、商、周時期是在長江以北,直到秦朝(公元前二二一 ~ 二○六年)後政治的勢力才及於中國大陸的中南方。最近的考古研究發現在中國大陸南方,再同一個時候存在另一個獨立且不同於中原文化的「越沿海文化」,從長江三角洲到越南北方的紅河三角洲。但是南方的歷史只從公元前五○○年左右吳越相爭之前才開始有的,越王勾踐的「臥薪嚐膽」富國的故事是大家所熟悉的。「越族」是指大陸東南沿海(浙江、福建、廣東及廣西)的居民,在漢朝以前因為這地區文化的多樣性而被稱為「百越」。除了春秋戰國的吳越相爭即在漢朝時期部份越族的北移外,在中國的歷史(及中原文化的歷史)並沒有太多有關越族的記載,因為在中國的歷史除了中原文化外,其他族群均屬「蠻族」。閩人及台灣閩南人的祖先是居住在福建的越族,根據林惠祥及Meacham的研究,今日的閩人是東南沿海地區原住民「越族」的後代,雖然在秦朝即接下來的魏晉南北朝五胡亂華時期,因為戰亂北方中原人士紛紛南遷,有可能引起部份有限的中原基因的滲入。當「越」的文化漸漸被「漢」化後,「越族」就在歷史上被改名成「漢族」,導致今日台灣的閩南人錯誤的判斷且自認為是純種北方漢族的後代。在中國歷史上許多民族接受漢文化而漢化,後來這些人民也常常宣稱他們是漢族,這是因為在過去漢文化是強勢文化,所以當了漢人可得到利益及社會地位。在客家人的情形也是相似,在南宋(一一二七 ~ 一二七九AD)或更早的時期有少數的中原家族南遷到東南沿海的山區,這些人以強勢的漢文化在文化及語言上影響週遭的原住民,特別是住在廣東的越族,所以早期的少數中原移民加上眾多的越族而成客家族群。

我們以統計得到基因距離D及DA建構的族群系統發生樹,顯示閩南人與客家人有相當一致的基因,所以先合在一起,然後在和泰國華人、新加坡華人合併成一枝,而這些族群都是起源於東南沿岸的原住民「越族」,其中最重要的是「台灣人」明顯的和北方漢人分開。慈濟骨髓登陸的資料建構的族群系統發生樹顯示「台灣人」和南方漢人合併,但和北方漢人分開。其他許多HLA的研究,及別的基因漢遺傳標誌,像免疫球蛋白、血型、葡萄糖六磷酸去氫酵素及染色體DNA微衛星等,都明顯的把「台灣人」和北方漢人分開,不久前中國北京的中科院遺傳研究所和美國史坦福大學Cavalli-Sforza合作研究,以中國人的姓氏及三種簡單的血型分佈情形將北方漢人與南方漢人分開,在該項研究中南方漢人再被分為三群,及長江下游以上海為中心的一群、長江流域的一群集另一群屬於越族的東南沿海地區及島嶼(包括台灣)的居民。中國人的姓氏約有四○○○尼的歷史而且是由男性承傳,所以可以認為代表Y染色體的遺傳,該研究更藉著中國的二十八省加上台灣以ABO、MN及Rh(D)血型的基因頻率而計算出族群的關係,畫製成第一度及第二度空間上的族群主要相關圖明顯的把東南沿海地區及台灣的居民(及越族)與其他地區的居民分開。

以上資料顯示南方漢人是源自南方而有別於北方漢人,「台灣人」是古代越族的後代而保存著古代越族的基因A33-Cw10-B58-DRB1*03-DQB01*02。有關「台灣人」與南方漢人的基因距離的遠近,有待將來的研究,因為現在這研究中所用的南方漢人資料有一半是自福建。

(本文為摘要,全文刊登於Tissue Antigens 57(3), 192-199, 2001)

In addition, the frequently cited 85% [of Taiwanese are descendants of the Aborigines] value seems to have come from an article attributed to Dr Lin (published in The Liberty Times, 8/11/2007):

"...在一百人當中只有三十三人的父母系血緣全部來自亞洲大陸,其他六十七人的父母系血緣是混合了台灣原住民、東南亞島嶼族群及亞洲大陸的血緣。分析這三十三人的組織抗原半套型的來源,看到十八人帶有台灣原住民的基因,十人帶有中國東南沿海越族特徵的基因,二個西南亞洲基因及各一個北方漢人、藏人及歐洲人的基因,所以根據三個系統的分析,八十五%的台灣人是帶有台灣原住民的血緣,所以是平埔公、平埔嬤、唐山公、唐山嬤,還有高山公、高山嬤及少數外國基因一起建構了非原住民台灣人的基因。"
Among the 100 volunteers, 67 have a "blood relation" with the Aborigines, SE Asian Islands people, and Asian continent groups. Of the other 33, 18 carry an Aboriginal gene, 10 have the Yue characteristic, and the rest, a mixed bag.

In a post published on 8/27/2008, Dr Lin re-stated her findings:

"...我們把100人的父母系血緣的結果放在一起評估,發現有67人的父母系血緣或兩個血緣中的一個血緣是來自原住民或東南亞島嶼族群,剩下33人的父母系血緣則全來自亞洲大陸,然而我們在這33人的組織抗原分析當中發現18人帶有很可能來自原住民的血緣,因此從三個基因系統(母系血緣、父系血緣、組織抗原),有 67人+18人=85人,也就是約85%的台灣人帶有原住民及或東南亞島嶼族群的基因..."

So, based on bloodline analysis, 67 are found to have markers from the "Aborigines or SE Asian islanders [and the Asian continent component now omitted for some reason] on either the maternal or the paternal, or both sides. The other 33 all have bloodline markers from the Asian continent; although 18 are with possibly an Aboriginal tissue antigen marker. Combining all three markers, then you end up with (67+18)/100 = 85% [without taking mutual-exclusivity into account, however]. It was more speculative than conclusive at least as far as the tissue antigen. And it was a combined "原住民及或[and/or]東南亞島嶼族群的基因" implying the Aborigines in Taiwan share a common genetic marker with the SE Asian islanders. In this sense, the claim of "85% of the Taiwanese descended from the SE Asian islanders" would be equally valid, migratory history notwithstanding.

Since all discoveries in science must withstand the time-test, Lin's study can be regarded as a theory based on some preliminary data. The protein-coding genes alone consist of as many as 30,000. Three markers are not nearly enough. It also should be noted that Lin's serological study was based on blood samples from 100 donors and the tissue antigen study from fewer than 250 volunteers. The participants were non-randomized self-proclaimed non-aboriginal Taiwanese. Extrapolation of the findings to the entire population therefore must be exercised with extreme caution.

The rebuttals often emphasize that Han is not a race but a culture and, Lin herself also concurs, that Taiwanese are whoever regard Taiwan as their homeland.

Let's just say the verdict is still out as far as the origin of the Taiwanese. For an important issue such as this, the scientific evidence must be irrefutable. We therefore advocate a nation-wide (not a small sample) mitochondrial DNA study.

20 則留言:

  1. When it comes to identity, I think what counts more is the early impressions in childhood. If one grows up been called a Taiwanese, he will identify himself as being Taiwanese. If one grows up NOT care much about been called Taiwanese for one reason or another, he will probably move to somewhere else and adopt another nationality or identity sooner or later.

    Isn't such high-tech genetic testing to verify the purity or legitimacy of who's Taiwanese a mere academic exercise? What purpose does it serve to average people who just want a better life? I think the debate about who's Taiwanese is mostly driven by people who dislike KMT or CPP. What good does it do to identify who's Taiwanese and who's not? Simple, some political operators can use it to trigger an easy to understand logic in people's mind: Taiwanese are good for Taiwanese political offices. Non-Taiwanese are not good for Taiwanese political offices. In other words, KMT and CPP get lost. Are they right? I don't know. But I think they are supremely good at denying that they are ever wrong.

    I was traveling with a friend maybe in Italy once. When an Italian asked me who I was I said I came from Taiwan and I was a Chinese. My friend later asked me in a surprised tone why I didn't say I came from the U.S.? I was surprised at my friend thinking me as American. But then I looked at myself Chinese first before Taiwanese, even though I was born and grew up in Taiwan. That probably has to do with reading and writing in Chinese and learning Chinese history and being called 外省人 and had trouble speaking Taiwanese correctly and not knowing much about people and things Taiwanese. But it bothered me none whether I'm called Chinese or Taiwanese.

    As far as ethnic / cultural identity goes, I think each person identify himself by what he learned and by his own thinking and by what he wants.

    Identity in a political context is a different matter. That is about rights and responsibilities. For a citizen, the rights of passports, education, health services, etc. as well as responsibilities of taxes, military services and so on are clearly laid out. But can we identify Taiwanese politically as someone who is trying to pay less and get more? Or is that universal to people of all identities?

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  2. I have lived under three national flags; born as a Japanese before end of the War, brain-washed as a Chinese by KMT regime and naturalized as an American citizen by choice; yet I still proudly considered myself as a Taiwanese.
    Ma (馬英九)was born in Hong Kong yet he shouted with broken Fukien or Minnan that "GO-SI-Taiwan-Ran" (餓死(我是)台湾人), trying ever so hard to prove that he is a true Taiwanese shamelessly.
    Although Herman was born in Taiwan by 外省人parents yet I consider he is more Taiwanese than Ma is.
    ChoSan

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  3. Just to play the devil's advocate, I think I have to talk about this point: "Reporters in Taiwan tend to sensationalize issues using mis-interpreted information, so these are not quite that surprising." Nah, most reporters in Taiwan seem to be onboard for the re-sinofication of this country. Whenever I talk to locals about the concept that they might have aboriginal blood, they have no idea of what I am going on about. In chatting with locals on the street, I pretty much have yet to meet a single individual who is aware the discussion is even happening. They obviously haven't picked up on so-called media sensationalism you are bringing up. The facts are as such: from 1683 to the early part of of the 19th century, immigration of Chinese women to Taiwan was basically forbidden, see lots of Taiwanese males marrying aboriginal women.... I am not saying that Chinese women didn't come here. Their number was quite restricted, that is all.

    I'm always interested to see more on how the demography of Taiwan is shaping up today. Taiwan's birthrate is extremely low and transnational babies, interestingly, now play a large role in that number. Are those kids to be considered Han? My wife must have some Chinese blood. But we were talking about it the other day. She explained how her grandpa had accepted his wife's family name for a place in a decently well-off, land-owning clan = can you say uxorilocal marriage. From this account alone we can see a fairly important marker. I doubt a DNA test is in order to realize that my wife, and daughter, are the proud owners of aboriginal DNA.

    With all due respect, a 2001 report is ten-years dated, eyedoc.

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  4. (1) The same as the Americans, most don't know what the debt ceiling is, for example;

    (2) Restriction of Han women into Taiwan = urban legend;

    (3) Those kids will carry a maternal mtDNA marker (Han or otherwise) and family history is exactly what the "Taiwanese are not Chinese" faction has tried to discredit; and

    (4) Lin has published a book "我們流著不同的血液" in 2010 which re-iterates the theory from 2001 (and 2007), so the issue is not dated/dead at all.

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  5. Patrick,

    Here's a TV show discussing the blood relation between Taiwanese / Chinese / Aborigines. It's in Taiwanese/Mandarin.

    http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UNVy4rnFhGo&feature=related

    Here's another TV show where 5 aborigines talk about their New Years and tribal languages/customs. (all speaking Mandarin) Some pretty funny.

    http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HuKKhvZk5y0&feature=related

    Out of the 5 aborigines, only 1 looked Polynesian, and 1 looked particularly dark / eyes deep set, that I would guess they may be aboriginal. The others I can't tell. Some thought I looked Japanese, Vietnamese, Thai. And I didn't know Ma Ying-Jeou was born in Hong-Kong. ChoSan's rendition of Canton-Taiwanese "GO-SI-Taiwan-Ran" is pretty funny.

    If I were in Taiwan and having a conversation with someone about the Taiwanese / Aborigines /Chinese relationship, the conversation probably will drift toward sensational/gossipy/entertaining side more than the academic/factual side.

    Maybe that's why history is passed down more by stories and imaginations than by facts because the average minds just can't handle the rigor of understanding facts. I myself don't get the meaning of 組織抗原半套型 in the DNA study and am too lazy to find out what it is.

    EyeDoc, ChoSan,

    Allow me to change the subject a bit. How did the Japanese rule affected Taiwan's education system? There's a lot of cram schools in Taiwan today. Is that a legacy of traditional Chinese testing system? Did the Japanese also institute heavy school testings in Taiwan? I heard a few stories of how good and dedicated Japanese school teachers were, not like their beastly military officers at all. Was that so? And why is 中國 translated as China? I heard that Japanese call it 支那. Is that where the name "China" came from? It can't be because some famous ceramic pottery or plates, can it?

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  6. To be honest, I find this talk of Taiwanese/Chinese a bit strange. Go to any province in China and you will see people of markedly different appearance all of whom refer to themselves as Han Chinese. Does the fact that immigrants from the mainland several hundred years ago married aboriginal wives make their descendents, the vast majority of whom speak, read, and write Chinese or a 'dialect' of it, "not Chinese"? Or is it the fact that some of them do not identify themselves as Chinese that means that some people are not Chinese?

    The simple fact is, the people of Taiwan are, in the main, ethnically speaking, about as "Chinese" as most of the people of Sichuan, Hainan, Fujian, Guangdong, Yunnan, Guangxi and other similar peripheral Chinese provinces. Trying to "win" the independence debate on ethnic grounds is a non-starter, and I wish more people would recognise that. If the debate is to be had, it should focus on the actual physical advantages and disadvantages of formal independence.

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  7. FOARP:

    Your personal icon is actually a highly offensive Chinese profanity. Since you hail from Poland, I assume you are not aware of it?

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  8. (1) The same as the Americans, most don't know what the debt ceiling is, for example;

    Touche

    (2) Restriction of Han women into Taiwan = urban legend;

    Is it? I have read reports of immigration going back to 1650s. I am pulling this from memory, but there was a year (1656? -- Shepherd) when something like 9 or 16 Chinese were officially jotted down as landing in Taiwan. With the exception of about a dozen years, immigration of women was banned throughout the 17th century

    (3) Those kids will carry a maternal mtDNA marker (Han or otherwise) and family history is exactly what the "Taiwanese are not Chinese" faction has tried to discredit; and

    (4) Lin has published a book "我們流著不同的血液" in 2010 which re-iterates the theory from 2001 (and 2007), so the issue is not dated/dead at all.

    OK, that's more relevant then.

    @FOARP:

    "Trying to "win" the independence debate on ethnic grounds is a non-starter, and I wish more people would recognise that."

    I, for one, am not interested in the "independence debate" as it pertains to this discussion. In fact, I abhor how history is twisted around for present-day political debates. I am simply interested in clarifying stuff that happened a long time ago. That is where my mind is.

    I have been reading eyedoc's blog since he put it up. I don't remember a single instance when he has tried to turn out an argument on the heritage of Taiwan's people and then relate it to Taiwan's sovereignty. Maybe I have missed something though. Enlighten me.

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  9. "was banned throughout the 17th century" -- make that the 18th century. The Dutch actually wanted to bring Chinese women to Taiwan during their time, but the Chinese law-makers shot that down pretty good.

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  10. Hi Herman,

    I'll take on your questions first, in random order:

    (1) The name "China" seems to have derived from Chin秦 - contemporary Romans knew about it through the Silk Road trade. 支那Sina originated from Sanskrit. The Europeans did not know how to call the beautiful potteries imported from China, so the word china (with a small cap) was used.

    (2) The Japanese instituted compulsory elementary school education which replaced the old-style private tutoring. The first such school was opened in Danshui which was the alma mater of both ChoSan and myself. The competition to get into elite schools and to obtain good jobs is probably universal. Cram schools exist not only in Taiwan but also in Japan, not necessarily the legacy of the Chinese traditional 科舉制度.

    (3) The stories about the Japanese teachers are mostly true (still talked about even now); there are also a few horror stories of course.

    To add a little more background: Family members do recall three 舉人 in the family and the status became meaningless after 1895. They also remember the favorable treatment of the Japanese when it came to jobs, promotion, and 配給 under the Japanese rule.

    The CCP intends to take Taiwan, by force if necessary, neglecting the fact that it has never ruled Taiwan.

    And ChoSun: 蔡英文 speaks Taiwanese with an accent as well.

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  11. Wow, China = Chin-A, can Europa = Europe-A? All these continents with names ending in a. Some kind of Roman legacy too?

    How about some information on life of Taiwan under the Japanese Rule? What was the general Taiwanese mood regarding identity and living standards during Japanese Rule?

    I love a lot of old Taiwanese songs that have Japanese melody in it. Singing karaoke is so fun.

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  12. Hi Herman,

    They are probably all Latin, i.e., Roman.

    Chosan can tell you a lot more about the life of the Taiwanese during the Japanese rule. He has truly amazing recalls.

    You can also look at my post:
    http://danshuihistory.blogspot.com/2010/08/tung-kang-incident.html

    Old Taiwanese songs with Japanese melodies? You mean those sung by 李香蘭, the star of 南滿映畫? They were not Taiwanese.

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  13. Hi Patrick,

    You are quoting from Shepard? I'll address this urban legend soon.

    Well, maybe a quick note here, a preview of sorts: In 1759, for example, record shows 29 ships smuggling illegal immigrants into Taiwan were caught with 990+ people detained.

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  14. Hi EyeDoc, ChoSan,

    Reading the post on 東港事件 is a real sobering experience. If ChoSan you can say something about it also that would be good for us who are unaware of such matters. But if the recall is too painful, of course you can tell me something else, such as anecdotes of Japanese school teachers who made positive changes to his/her students. Seems like that's one bright spot during the time of the Japanese Rule.

    About the Taiwanese songs with Japanese melodies, I was listening to a collection of albums by 蔡琴. I guess the songs were popular in the 60s and 70s. I actually don't know if they're really Japanese tunes or not. It just sounded so Japanese to me. Names of some of the songs are: 飄浪之女,月夜愁,舊情綿綿,望你早歸,憶難忘. I pray that EyeDoc will tell me that at least one song has Japanese melody. That would make my day.

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  15. "You are quoting from Shepard? I'll address this urban legend soon.

    Well, maybe a quick note here, a preview of sorts: In 1759, for example, record shows 29 ships smuggling illegal immigrants into Taiwan were caught with 990+ people detained."

    Interesting. Am looking forward to it as you normally put up great posts. Will read it with an open mind too.

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  16. "but there was a year (1656? -- Shepherd) when something like 9 or 16 Chinese were officially jotted down as landing in Taiwan."

    I meant to say Chinese women. I once made a chart on immigration figures during the 1650s as they related to gender. I'll try to locate it. I have too many computers, USBs and external hard-drives going holding my Taiwan studies. I need to centralize them someday. Cheers, eyedoc.

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  17. "(2) The Japanese instituted compulsory elementary school education which replaced the old-style private tutoring. The first such school was opened in Danshui which was the alma mater of both ChoSan and myself."

    What school was that? I think a post on this school would make for interesting reading.

    I was under the impression that George Leslie MacKay, a Canadian, opened the first school in Taiwan that replaced old-style private tutoring. I thought he established his school prior to Japan's governance here. I don't think it was compulsory, but it would not have followed the Ching Dynasty concept of study for the purpose of passing exams for entry into the Chinese bureaucracy.

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  18. Hi Herman,

    Except 月夜愁, which may regarded as Japanese (but not really), none of the others are Japanese.

    And Patrick,

    We were talking the first public school. Mackay established the first private school which was not academically well-regarded (apologies to Tamkang alums). Its curriculum would not have prepared the students for the old Qing civil exam system, at all.

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  19. LOL, but what is your school? I think a write up would be kind of cool.

    I don't know much about Mackay's school other than famous alumni and the interesting architecture that stands to this day.

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  20. The school in question was called Tamsui Elementary School 淡水公学校 when I was attending. It changed to 淡水国民学校 during the War and probably called 淡水国民小学校 by now. The school is located few hundred steps from my father's old house. Among the graduates, just mention a few, are ex-President Lee 李登輝 and Dr. Tu杜聡明, the first Taiwanese physician to earn his Doctor of Medicine degree. The school just has celebrated its 115 years anniversary not long time ago.
    ChoSan

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